Impact of Stakeholder Management on Construction Industry

Impact of Stakeholder Management on Construction Industry 1.0 Introduction/Background Project management is an evolving discipline which is relatively new in both practice and academics hence knowledge is drawn from other disciplines to further advance both theory and practice in managing projects. Consequently this research will draw from different academic disciplines for its theory and the construction industry for its practice. To this end a project could be described as a strategy used by organisations to achieve its strategic goal, the strategy could be suggested to have a start and an end date (Turner 2009 p.20; Holton 2002 p.10-2). It could also be suggested that the word organisation in the above definition by Turner 2009 could be called the project stakeholder. Olanda and Landin (2005 p.321) defined project stakeholders as a  ¦group of people who have a vested interest in the success of a project and the environment within which the project operates. This research is focused on investigating the impact of stakeholder management and its contribution to project success in the construction industry. It could be suggested that the use of PMs life cycle phases be adopted for the entire project plan as seen in figure 1 below. Figure -Project Lifecycle The project initiation phase of this report will include proposing a project research topic, assigning a project supervisor or project sponsor and proposing a research plan. While the project planning phase will include reviewing of the available project materials and the execution phase will involve writing up the literature review and project methodology. Handover and closeout will involve submitting the final report to supervisor and award of Msc degree in Project Management. Lessons learnt could be suggested to be the feedback and experience gained in during the research. 1.2 Project Context Project Context could be suggested to be the setting in which a project is carried out (ApmBok 2009). In relation to the above description, the aim of this research is in agreement with the above suggestion (Achterkamp and Vis 2008 pg 749). 1.3 Project Rationale 1.3.1 Academic Rationale The academic research into project stakeholders has been attractive and extensive to researchers and professionals. Evidence shows that the construction industry accounts directly for 10% GDP growth in the UK (Cridland and Wates 2009 p.5),this goes to justify the need to investigate the impact of stakeholder management and its contribution to project success in the construction industry and also fulfil the academic requirement of the award of Masters Degree. 1.3.2 Business Rationale The economic implications for any organisation if projects fail will be devastating considering the above report by Wates and Cridland (2009 p5), this report shows that the construction industry account for 10% GDP growth. Project failure of any kind in the current economic climate will cost the organization its finance and jobs e.g. BP deep horizon in the US Gulf Coast where the collapse of a well led to fatalities which in-turn increased BPs financial burden. 1.3.3 Personal Rationale It could be suggested that as a project management professional, embarking on this research will help one better understand the principles of stakeholder management. The knowledge gained from this research will clarify any unanswered questions at the end of this research. 1.4 Aim and Objectives This research is aimed at: Investigating the impact of stakeholder management and its contribution to project success in the construction industry Objectives To explore the principles of stakeholder management and project success. To assess the benefits and challenges of stakeholder management. To correlate a relationship between stakeholder management and project success. To propose a strategy for measuring the impact of stakeholder management thereby assessing its impact on project success. To make recommendations for improved stakeholder management practices. 1.4.2 Project Scope According to Burke (2003 p. 104) project scope identifies when a project has been successfully completed within specified requirement. The scope for this project will involve activities such as writing the literature review, research methodology and drawing on the findings of the above mentioned activities to come up with a conclusion and recommendation. The scope of this research excludes the execution of the primary research. 1.4.3 Project Deliverables Project deliverables for this research is suggested to be the outcome of the report at every stage of the lifecycle (ApmBok 2009 p.135). The deliverables as shown in Table 1 are generalised and subject to being revised at the end of this report. Table Project deliverables Deliverables Description Project Research Plan Introduction/ Background Project Context and Project Rationale Project Definition Project Approach Research Project Schedule Resource Requirements Ethical Considerations Literature Review Research of theory and practice within the construction industry Project Approach or Methodology It involves the description of the process in the collection and evaluation of data that will be used to achieve the overall aim and objectives of this report. Project Proposal This involves outlining a research proposal from the finding and the analysis done in the project approach section. Conclusion and Recommendation This section involves the final summation of all the data used and presenting recommendation(s) where necessary. 1.4.4 Assumption, Constraints and Considerations Assumptions The project will be delivered on time, quality and within budget. The literature / materials needed to complete the project will be readily available. That the project aim and objectives will be met at the end of the project. Constraints The time required by the sponsor to complete the report. Combining three live projects at the same period. i.e. CPD, Group placement and dissertation. Considerations That the report will inspire its readers to proceed towards a primary research. That there will be more research into the impact of project stakeholders and its contribution to project success within the construction industry. 1.5 Initial Literature Review 1.5.1 Stakeholder Management Project stakeholders have been widely discussed in various project management literatures. Fewings (2005 p.34) described project stakeholders as people that their interest could affect the outcome of the project while Olanda and Landin (2005 p.321) agues that although project stakeholders are group of people with different interest in a particular project, they are also interested in a successful outcome no matter the level of interest. Since this research will be focusing on stakeholder management, McElroy and Mills (2007 p.270) suggested that stakeholder management deals with the relationships between stakeholders within projects. This relationship must be developed and structured so as to achieve a successful outcome. McElroy and Mills (2007 p.270) description of stakeholder management is convincing because different bodies of knowledge are yet to agree on a particular description for stakeholder management. Fewings (2005) and Olanda Landin (2005) perspectives on project stakeholders in relation to stakeholder management is valid in that all agreed that stakeholders are made up of more than one individual, so managing this relationship as described by McElroy and Mills (2007 p.270) will determine if a project is a success or a failure . 1.5.2 Project Success Yu et al. (2005) suggested that a: Project  is a success if its created product adds value to the client, considering the cost to the client at the point of acceptance While there is no definite definition to what project success is or what will be the best way to define success, this report would look into critical success criteria used in the construction industry to determine when a project is successful. The ApmBok (2009) defined project success as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the satisfaction of stakeholder needs measured by the success criteria as identified and agreed at the start of the projectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 1.6 Project Research Approach In this section it could be suggested that a proposed research approach be developed, this approach would be aligned with the project aim and objectives. To achieve the above this report has identified two methods or type of research, this are the Primary and Secondary research. A primary research entails the collection of new data or expansion of existing theories in project management body of knowledge. This could be achieved by using the following methods: the use of questionnaires, sampling and survey. Data for this research would be collected though documentary research. This involves analysing various literatures relating to the research; given that this research is a secondary research, a qualitative method will be employed. 1.6.1 Ethical Consideration Sekaran (2000, p17) defined ethics as a code of conduct or expected societal norm of behaviour while conducting a research or project . Below in table 2 are the ethical considerations used to compile this research. Table -Ethical Consideration This research was carefully structured to avoid any misrepresentation or distortion of data collected. All information used for this research was adequately referenced to avoid plagiarism. This report was written with due respect for the subject and authors All information used for this report is in line with universities academic guidelines. Sekaran ( 2000, p.261) 1.7 Project Planning / Report Schedule Burke (2003, p.94) defined project schedule as  ¦a process required to ensure that various elements of the project are properly managed and controlledà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The project schedule will be used to assign expected start date and expected finish date. The schedule is in a Gantt chart, this could be suggested to be in agreement with (Burke 2003) definition. See Appendix 1 for more details. 1.8 Project Resource Requirements and Budget The resources required for a successful completion of this project is listed in Table 2 and the cost estimate that would apply to both primary and secondary research is in Table 3 Figure -Resources Requirement Human Resources Description Hours Researcher Researcher would carry out a secondary research and prepare a primary research plan to be used to further analyse the project aim 600 Academic supervisor The academic supervisor would give guidance, review and monitor project to ascertain if the project is within scope. 60 Project sponsor The project sponsor and management would be need during an actual primary research. 100 Table Project Budget Activity Budget Source Cost for Researcher and supervisor  £3000 RGU and Sponsor Printing of dissertation and buying of CD drives ( hard and soft copies)  £200 Researcher and Sponsor (in the case of a primary Research) Transport is Dependent on the location of the organisation and RGU library Not Determined at present Researcher and Sponsor 1.8.1 Risk Matrix Risk management is a key area in APM and PMI bodies of knowledge; projects are often associated with one form of risk or another (Raz Michael 2000), controlling this risk is an important task for any researcher. To this end, this report will take a proactive role in controlling risks associated to this project by developing a risk plan which can be seen in Table 4

Theories of Development Essay -- Psychology

Theories of Development There are many branches of psychology. The field of human development is divided into five theory groups. The theory groups are Psychodynamic, Cognitive, Systems, Biological and Behavioral. Each theory group has many contributing theorists. Some theories overlap while others are independent. Often theories are credible whereas others cause skepticism. There are many contributors to the world of psychology with different views and beliefs about human development. Psychodynamic Theory Sigmund Freud was one of the most influential contributors to the field of psychology. Freud was born in 1856, in Moravia. In 1881, Freud received a doctorate in medicine. Freud’s main focus of study was neurology; this led him to begin concentrating his research on nervous disorders. Freud’s research brought him to his psychoanalytical theory. Freud’s theory suggests that an individual’s unconscious processes or thoughts contribute to one’s personality and influences one’s behavior. Freud’s theory included the concept that personality is composed of three elements: the id (pleasure seeker), the ego (deals with reality), and the superego (one’s sense of right and wrong). Freud also believed that human development consisted of five psychosexual stages: the oral stage (birth-18 months), anal stage (18 months-3 years), phallic stage (3-6 years), latency stage (6-12 years), and the genital stage (12 years and up). The theory includ ed the belief that if one wants to develop a healthy personality, one has to complete all five psychosexual stages successfully. Another great contributor to the Psychodynamic field of psychology is Erik Erickson. Erickson was born in 1902, in Germany. Erickson travelled around Europe and attended t... ...ps of human development have led to many breakthroughs in psychology. There are many theorists that have contributed to the five theory groups. However, there are also theorists that are considered to be the founders of each group. All of the theories are relative and may help explain human development, including one’s personality or behavior. Works Cited Crain, W. (2011). Theories of development: Concepts and applications. (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Craig, G. J., & Dunn, W. L. (2010). Understanding human development. (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Mike Wade (October 18, 2005) Theories used in Research General System Theories http://www.istheory.yorku.ca/generalsystemstheory.htm Walonick, David S. (1993) General Systems Theory. http://www.statpac.org/walonick/systems-theory.htm

How animal research has advanced the understanding of depression :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Animal models have made numerous progresses in the last century. This type of research has made a difference in the way we look at psychological issues such as depression. This paper is a review of the literature on animal models of depression. The issue of what advances have been made will be explored. The effects of serotonin on many issues have been studied. In this paper stress, learning, memory, brain derived neurotrophic factor, ovarian hormone withdrawal, and effects of certain drugs will be looked at. Let’s look at stress and serotonin first. Stress   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A study done by Grippo, Sullivan, Damjanoska and colleages (2004) shows that chronic mild stress provokes behavioral and physiological changes and may change serotonin receptor function in rats. In this study sixty four Sprague-Dawley rats were used. Half were male and the other half were female. The following stimuli were used as stressors which include:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Continuous light for 2 12 hour periods   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Forty degree tilt along vertical axis of cage for 6 hour period   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paired housing for a 16 hour period and 4 hour period   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Damp bedding with 300 mL water spilled on bedding for 16 hour period   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Water deprivation for 16 hour period   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Empty water bottle following 16 hour water deprivation for 1 hour   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Stroboscopic light with 300 flashes a minute for a 6 hour period and 4 hour period   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  White noise at approximately 90 dB for 4 hour period of continuous noise and a 3 hour period with random intermittent noise All the stressors were given over a period of one week, and randomly presented for 3 additional weeks for a total of 4 week trial. All the rats were injected with a receptor agonist and were decapitated 15 minutes after the injection for the trunk blood. The 4 week trial resulted in the rats showing signs of depression, and satisfied adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) responses to the receptor agonist. The trials also sparked a lack of pleasure in both male and female rats.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another studied related to stress was done by Gregus, Wintink, David and Lalynchik (2005). This study looked at corticosterone injections and stress and how this relates to depression. Sixty naà ¯ve Long-Evans male rats were used. The rats were randomly assigned to 4 groups and were given corticosterone injections (CORT), vehicle injections, repeated restraint stress and repeated handling. These treatments were given for 21 days. The CORT group and vehicle group were given injections at random times during the light and dark cycles.

Henry David Thoreau: a Philosophical Reflection Essay

Henry David Thoreau was an inexhaustible writer that encompassed poetry and philosophy within his narratives and created a style of writing that, for his time, was difficult to define and categorize. Because of this his works were often overlooked for the genius that was held within them as writers of his time had already begun to stray from the traditional stances of philosophy. However, one can easily survey the works of Henry David Thoreau and do so with an immense amount of appreciation for his keen ability to contemplate and delve into the varied psyches and perspectives that man holds. And despite the difficulties in categorization it cannot be denied that Thoreau’s works were powerful and filled with brilliance. Thoreau wrote from a contemplative platform. He was not one who was frightened by solitude. Coined often as saying, â€Å"As you simplify your life, the laws of the universe will be simpler; solitude will not be solitude, poverty will not be poverty, nor weakness, weakness. † He passionately held to the understanding that in order to embrace all the wonder and beauty that the world holds we as a people needed to slow down, to observe our surroundings and embrace all that is before us. And sometimes in order to do that, more often in order to do that, one needed to disconnect and detach from distractions and things that skewed one’s vision in order to do so. Thoreau held to the belief that, â€Å"our limited view often keeps us from appreciating the harmonious interdependence of all parts of the natural world: this is not due to â€Å"any confusion or irregularity in nature,† but because of our own incomplete knowledge. † This was just one of many excerpts taken from Thoreau’s work, Walden, that expressed his elief that we have so much to gain by embracing more than our own perspectives as a singular perspective only sees from one vantage point. This particular work of Thoreau’s, Walden, really highlighted his fusion of philosophy and poetry amidst a presented narrative. And as previously mentioned, while it made it hard to categorize, Thoreau did gain notoriety for its content and his literary prowess. Thoreau was a Harvard graduate. He was a student of ancient scripture as well as one who studied literature containing Asian wisdoms and traditions. He was well versed and enjoyed covering a broad spectrum of material. He enjoyed the philosophical perspectives of Locke and Coleridge as well as holding honor and respect for Emerson, despite their different outlooks at times. It was evident in his writings that he held a great value for nature. He also found importance in seeking out God in the midst of nature’s existence. Thoreau held to this belief not just as a mere perspective but as a life philosophy as well. The evidence of such was found in that many of his greatest writings came when silence stilled the atmosphere and he was able to enter into the beauty that the earth around him held. After all it was his belief that beauty was more than just in the eye of the beholder but was actually held within one, a beholder, who was able to first perceive it. Thoreau brilliantly described his viewpoints in his explorations of human perspectives and challenged individuals to see beyond the mere surface of things. We see this demonstrated in the expression of his story, Walden. He was out in the woods, far from any other individual for two years and two months. During that time, he became one with nature in a way he found difficult to do amongst the bustling of a busy city. He provided for himself through his work laboring the land and as he was secluded in this place he was able to gain a deeper perspective of life through his silent contemplations of the life that surrounded him. It wasn’t loud, crowded and crazy, filled with opinions and demands. The wilderness provided a contemplative canvas of beauty where every possibility could be considered without the rude interruptions that often come with man’s agenda. In the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy it was aptly conveyed that one of the greatest attributes or virtues of Thoreau’s writings was awareness. Thoreau had a talent for drawing his reader’s into a greater understanding of things they were not first nature to them and causing them to ponder, reflect and evaluate life in a deeper manner. Life is more than what it first appears and that in the embrace of simplicity one can begin to see and behold all that there is beyond what merely man has created himself, this was a message of great importance to Thoreau. Henry David was also an agent of change. In arousing individuals to embrace greater perspectives of life philosophies he compelled them further to change the way that they approached life. His belief was this, â€Å"We need to cherish and nurture our capability to discern the difference between the idea and reality, between what is and what ought to be. It is when we experience dissatisfaction with ourselves or with external circumstances that we are stimulated to act in the interest of making things better. † If we strive to uphold a certain value but are not actively doing things that promote our values or beliefs then there is a chasm between what is and what should be and Thoreau was not shy about addressing this issue in his writings. Ultimately Henry David Thoreau was an inspirational writer who spurred his readers on to seek out and explore a life with deeper meaning. He admonished small thinking and in the same breath imparted a sense of hope and expectation in portraying that there was more to the world than meets the eye. It was just simply in the eye of the beholder to not only see it but perceive it. This thought was brilliantly encapsulated within a timeless quote credited to Henry David Thoreau when stated, â€Å"What lies behind us and what lies ahead of us are tiny matters compared to what lives within us. † If one believes, all things are possible.

How does Shakespeare Create Atmosphere Essay

William Shakespeare creates atmosphere in this scene by using a number of effective techniques, in this essay I will be discussing how these techniques create such a tense and suspenseful atmosphere that truly captures and engages the Elizabethan audience. Firstly, Shakespeare uses dramatic irony in this scene by the entrance of Romeo, the audience are aware that he has just came from marrying Juliet, however the characters on stage are not. The fact that the characters are unaware of this information has a strong influence over their actions that would be different if they knew the truth. This thought will raise the tension in the audience. Another example of dramatic irony being used in this scene is when Romeo tries to explain to tybalt that he loves him and wants to make peace,† But love thee better than thou canst devise , till thou shalt know the reason of my love.† Here the audience understand why Romeo loves Tybalt because he has just married his cousin, however T ybalt thinks Romeo is being sarcastic and this angers him further, while Mercutio perceives Romeos words as giving into tybalt and not defending the family name, he finds this disgusting. â€Å"O calm, dishonourable, vile submission!† Shakespeare shows how words can be interpreted in many different ways, another clever device. Dramatic irony is also used when Tybalt says â€Å"Here comes my man,† as Romeo enters, this reveals that Tybalt has no interest in conflicting with Mercutio, he is here to fulfil his revenge against Romeo for crashing the party. The audience realise this because they have heard Tybalt plan his revenge in Act 1 scene 5, â€Å"Now seeming sweet, convert to bitt’rest gall.† As the characters on stage do not know of this plan, the dramatic tension is increased. Secondly, Shakespeare emphasises the contrasting themes of this play to create atmosphere within this scene; the first example is the stark contrast between the calm and loving cool night setting and the tense, violent, stifling hot setting of this scene. The sharp change of setting would automatically create a sense of uncertainty and give the play more suspense and the audience have now witnessed that the play coul d twist unexpectedly. The main themes of the play, love and hate, contrast heavily in this scene. We witness Romeo tenderly approach Tybalt with love and peace â€Å"And so, good Capulet, which name I tender as dearly as mine own, be satisfied.† The  harshly contrasting words of Tybalt help to emphasise how deep the feud is between the two families â€Å"Thou art a villain.† Romeo enters the scene in a bubble of bliss and new love for his bride but he flees the scene after slaying Tybalt in a state of blind furious revenge. As Mercutio dies, Romeo blames his love for Juliet for making him weak and unable to save his friend.†Thy beauty hath made me effeminate†, this reflects the view of women at the time, as Elizabethan’s believed that if a man was too much in love this made him weak. The importance of masculinity in those times is also shown in Mercutio’s disgust when Romeo refuses Tybalt’s challenge for a duel- a traditional masculine act of protection and defence of nobility. This would create atmosphere as masculinity and femininity are another contrasting theme. Shakespeare uses the role of fate to create atmosphere throughout the play, it appears as fate has choreographed the ev ents to happen in a certain way to result in the tragic end to Romeo’s and Juliet’s love story. Romeo mentions fate and fortune frequently he seems have trust in it and hopes he will be guided into something good. â€Å"But he hath the steerage of my course direct my sail!† After Mercutio’s death Romeo refers to the incident as â€Å"This days black fate.† Again the belief that this greater power has control over the sequence of events is presented to the audience. If fate is this ruthless who will be its next victim? This question of the audience will contribute to the suspenseful atmosphere. Fate is personified when Romeo cries after slaying Tybalt â€Å"O, I am fortune’s fool.† This shows that Romeo feels that fortune is playing around with his life and he has no control over his actions and choices, I think Romeo’s belief in fortune relates to how his character is revealed in this scene. Relating to fate, some of the characters seem to have premonitions of the future, Romeo feels that there will be more trouble to come â€Å"This days black fate on Moe days doth depend.† This gives an eerie hint to the audience on the black fate that will strike Romeo and his Juliet. Benvolio at the beginning of the scene ca n sense that trouble will start because of the heat and suggests to Mercutio that they retire â€Å"And if we meet we shall not scape a brawl, for now these hot days, is the mad blood stirring.† The reference to â€Å"mad blood† hints of the blood that is shed in a Romeo’s mad frenzy of violence, and gives the audience the effective image of the heat and anger boiling Romeo’s blood. Finally, fate seems to find a voice in dying  Mercutio who claims â€Å"A plague a’ both your houses!† which ominously forecasts the plague of death which strikes the lovers at the end of the play. Atmosphere is visually created by the quick and action packed fight scene, two lives are lost in a relatively short time this would have been very dramatic and emotional too watch, having a dazed effect on the audience. The fight scene would have presented Tybalt’s swords skills and Romeo’s furious passion, showing that the battle could go either way, creating a very excited but suspenseful atmosphere. One of the main contributions to the atmosphere is Shakespeare’s choice and style of language; we must remember that Elizabethans went to hear a play and how effective the language was had a key role in gaining their support of the play. Shakespeare uses rhyming couplets to creative an effective atmosphere, when lady Capulet discovers that Romeo has killed tybalt she says â€Å"I beg for justice which thou, Prince, must give: Romeo slew Tybalt, Romeo must not live.† This is effective because rhyming couplets conclude a thought and seal it as definite; this foreshadows the future as Romeo does not live, as a result of killing tybalt, because if not for this action the next sequence of events leading to his death wouldn’t have occurred. Atmosphere is also created by Mercutio’s style of lines, Mercutio speaks in prose a line that is usually given to a common or small character, but Mercutio is a gentlemen from a wealthy background therefore he is not using prose to reflect his social class, but to reflect a negative and lowly view of a subject. In this case Mercutio describes Benvolio’s temper â€Å"Thy head is as full of quarrels is and egg is full of meat.† The audience will realise that it is not the peacemaker Benvolio Mercutio is describing, but that he is describing his own troublemaking characteristics. Talking in prose shows that he feels this lowly and shameful part of his characteristics. Wordplay was another technique used to create atmosphere that was very popular with the Elizabethans, Shakespeare inputs this in Romeo’s response to Tybalt’s challenge as Romeo answers changing the words only slightly. â€Å"The love I bear thee† Romeo responds with â€Å"the reason that I have to love thee†, while â€Å"Thou art a villain† becomes â€Å"villain am I none†. â€Å"Boy, this shall not excuse the injuries†¦Ã¢â‚¬  is met with â€Å"I do protest I never injured thee†. Finally the direct challenge: â€Å"Therefore turn and draw† is countered with â€Å"And so†¦be satisfied†. The revelation of characters in this scene is a one  of the aspects of the atmospher e created, firstly Romeo reveals his impulsive and irrational nature when he chooses to avenge over a friends death rather than spare Juliet the loss of losing him and her cousin. It is also revealed that Romeo is very immature and cannot handle the concept of taking responsibility, only has he just been married and he blames Juliet for his weakness causing Mercutio’s death, linking back to his quote on fortune, Romeo seems to think he cant control anything and that it is all fates fault. Never once does he admit his mistake in killing Tybalt, instead he says fortune is controlling him for fun â€Å"O, I am fortunes fool.† He also personifies fury as if it is not his own actions but as if they are being controlled by fury. â€Å"And fire-eyed fury be my conduct now!† In conclusion all of these techniques I have discussed, tie together a fantastic knot of suspenseful and captivating atmosphere, that advances the plot and provides the first exciting twist of the play.

International Organization Based on the Assumption of Liberalism and Realism

Different theories explain why international organizations are createdWhich are basically a response to problems of incomplete information, transaction costs, and other barriers to efficiency and welfare improvement for their members. But different questions like; do international organizations really do what their creators intend them to do?Do they really support member states in achieving their basic interests mutually? These critical questions and others of their likes can be analyzed to some extent by several theories proposed by different scholars in the field of international relations.Such theories are liberal, realism and constructivism but the concern of this work is on realism and liberal theory. International organization is a union or association of States, or of enterprises or of other national entities set up across national boundaries.Examples are Of States, are the United Nations (UN) and the European Union (EU) of enterprises: Transnational Corporations (TNCs); inclu de The Coca-Cola Company, Sony, McDonalds, Toyota, etc. Of other national entities; are like Amnesty International; International Olympic Committee, World Organization of the Scout Movement, and the International Committee of the Red Cross.Around 30000 such organizations are active in about 300 countries and territory over the world. International organizations progressed after the Second World War, the gulf between the international politics and formal organizational arrangement which began to open in ways that were not easy to reconcile. This organization seemed to strengthen in dealing with rising problems such as the extension of property right, environment protection and formal supernatural authority. The international organization was the answer on solving collective problems.Public interestRefers to the net benefits derived for, and procedural rigor employed on behalf of, all society in relation to any action, decision or policy. Public may include the widest possible scope o f society, example of individuals and groups sharing a market place for goods and services (included those provided by government), as those seeking sustainable living standard and environment quality for themselves and future generations. Interests are all things valued by individual and society such as economic freedom, political power access to government property right.Those things we seek to acquire and control are interest like ideas we aspire to and protections that are harmful. Realism theory views that world politics is driven by competitive self-interest; they believe that decisive dynamic among countries is a struggle for power in an effort by each to preserve or, preferably, improve its military security and economic welfare in competition with other countries.As an approach to international politics, realism can be traced to such ancient practitioners and thinkers as Sun Tzu (544-496 B. C) the Chinese general and the author of The Art of War; Thucydides (460-399 B.C), a Greek historian and author of The History of the Peloponnesian War, and more recently statesmen such as Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) the Iron Chancellor who engineered the unification of Germany under Prussian control. (Rourke 2012b; p20)Liberal theoryStates are not simply ‘black boxes’ seeking to survive and prosper in an anarchic system. They are configurations of individual and group interests who then project interests into the international system through a particular kind of government. Survival may very well remain a key goal. But commercial interests or ideological beliefs may also be important.The conventional wisdom is that states create and delegate to IOs because they provide essential functions. They provide public goods, collect information, establish credible commitments, monitor agreements, and generally help states overcome problems associated with collective action and enhance individual and collective welfare.Notable philosopher advocating liberalis m including Thomas Hill Green, John Rawls, John Lock, Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill. Emanuel Kant, Jean Jacque Rousseau and the former USA presidents Woodrow Wilson and Franklin Roosevelt.It is true saying that international organizations based on the assumption that ‘’government aims at public interest’’, this is because international organizations sees that the government at a large extent is the best solution for solving public problems and a representation of public interest at the same time. This connotation can be analyzed through the use of liberal and realism theories as follows. Realism theory as the first theory of international organization is used to prove right the above quotation as they assume that, survival is the principal goal of every State. Realists hold states to be the main actors.It means that state control each and everything. Even if domestic interests, strategic culture, or commitment to a set of national ideals would dictate more benevolent or co-operative international goals, the anarchy of the international system requires that States constantly ensure that all states posses some military capacity, and they have sufficient power to defend themselves and advance their material interests necessary for survival. Survival of the state is important for every individual for example United States normally employs military power for the survival and to defend her national interests (Gulf war and Iraq war).  (Wolfrum,2011)Realists believe in the anarchic structure of the international system as the most important determinant of state behavior. Realists believe that the international system exists in a state of anarchy a term that implies not chaos or absence of structure and rules, but rather the lack of a central government that can enforce rules. Therefore order for the state to maintain public interest, a state makes use of the economic prosperity and military might to make decisions that are of much importanc e to the public.States will also act as best as they can in order to maximize their likelihood of the public and continuing to exist. (Ibid) Realists hold states to be rational actors. This means that given the goal of survival, States will act as best they can in order to maximize their likelihood of continuing to exist. Thus States may create international law and international institutions, and may enforce the rules they codify. However, it is not the rules themselves that determine why a State acts a particular way, but instead the underlying material interests and power relations.A country’s foreign policy may reflect broad national objectives and the strategies governments use to guide their actions in the international arena. Also a government extends the domestic interests to the international environment through the use of foreign policy that will guide the interaction of the state with other international actors like the international organizations. For example the foreign policy of Tanzania is aimed at developing the country through economic diplomacy, regional cooperation and multilateral relations.(ibid)Realism assume that all state posses military capacity and no any other state knows about neighbor intend precisely, thus the world is uncertain and dangerous, the only purpose of state is to defend the interest of the state, enable state to survive while promoting public interest against foreign invasion and occupation. Through government organs like judiciary, legislature and executive enforce laws to ensure achievement of public interest, where people have surrender their authority to the government to protect their liberty, life and property.People may ensure their safety through government from internal and external invasion or threats. (ibid) Liberal theory on the other hand is another theory of international relation which tries to explain the truth of international organization on the assumption that government aims at public interes t. This theory analyzes how government aims at providing public interest in several ways using its key assumptions as follows. Liberalism believes on democratic stability theory which rests on the observation that no two democratic states have ever gone to war with one another, and that democratic states rarely strike first.Liberals argue that democracies identify with one another because of their shared norms and values like the United States doesn’t want to take Canada partly because each country believes that citizens have the right to choose their own government and consequently believe that conquering another country and enslaving its citizen is wrong. Moreover democracies are not dominated by the military and lie in the hands of an individual or a small group; leaders are accountable to their people, who are often reluctant to see their children go to war.A variety of issues can dominate the international agenda. Unlike realist, liberals believe that national security d oes not always have to be of paramount importance economic, environmental issues, and human rights can all become the most important goal of a nation. Also in liberalism the ideas was international and they depend each other to solve certain problems for example the problems of hunger is not to Africa only but it is global while they provide deferent aids to African.Also the problem of economic crises is the western countries problems but shacked till African due to lose aids and loans. The state acts in the liberal of law, and not acts outside the law. Liberals contend that people and the countries that represent them are capable of finding mutual interests and cooperation to achieve them at least in part by working through International organizations and according to International law. On the other hand liberals do not dismiss power as a factor, but they add morality, ideology, emotions (such as the friendship and mutual identity) and habit of cooperation.Jean Jacques Rousseau (17 12-1718), he argued that in social contract (1762), that human had to join together in civil societies because they found it easier to improve their existence through cooperation than competitive self reliance. So in contemporary liberals in where each government aims at public interests they apply this notion to global society and argue that people and their countries can better their existence by joining together to build a cooperation and peaceful global society.In policy prescriptions liberals urges on creating norms of justice and peace, promoting and strengthening International Organizations in achieving people’s interests. Both classical and neo Liberals like Jean Jacques Rousseau and Wilson Woodrow on nature of politics, principles and cooperation as standards of international standards argue that people are not inherently political predators and are capable of achieving less conflictive relations either through current government structures or new models of governmen t.And on principle emphasis is on states to formulate their foreign policy according to cooperative and ethical standards to improve social, economic and political needs of each member country; they are not forced into organizations but according to their willingness and global challenges they face in providing public’s social, political and economic needs, thus different states join organizations like UN, AU and EU which enables member states in achieving such interests.  (Rourke 2005a, pp 17-22)Liberal international relation theory believes that government represents some segments of domestic society, whose interest are reflected in state policy. Consistent with the view that society, understood as an aggregate of autonomous individual and voluntary groups, is prior to the state. Liberal theories of politics accord a central place to the domestic institution that link state and society. Liberals analyze such institutions primarily as mechanisms for the representation of s ocial interests.The state is assumed to be representative to some set of social groups, although not all governments represents the entire population. For liberals, the principal agent relationship between the population and the state is thus a central issue. (Moravcsik,2010)In recommending the quotation that international organization based on the assumption that government aims at public interests; in realism point of view states act as main actor on the insurance of public interest within international system, still on its loneliness seem to fail on defending public interest fulfillment a hundred  percent due to series of challenges, threats or obstacles that fade upon state survive on maintaining public interest.Example hunger, issue of security, outbreak of diseases, as well as economic recession problem that is common to third world countries. Therefore state regardless of its potentiality role on public interest it must cooperate with non state actor be it international org anization like UN or be it regional organization like NGOs, civil society for maximum public interest achievement.Under liberal perspective state seems to be with great role in public interest since it cooperate with another actors on making the availability of conducive environment for public interest attainment within their respective boundary. Although most of this cooperation is not two way traffic in such a way that only one which is powerful side benefit from this cooperation either bilateral or multilateral.Example north-south, Therefore cooperation is inevitable for proper prosperity of public but should be win-win or two way traffic cooperation. Therefore principal actors of the world politics remains nation-states, though they are not the only actors. The international system consists of nation-states, international organizations, and private actors, thousands of international organizations were established during the post-World War II era.The increasing number of internat ional organizations is parallel to the increasing levels of economic, political, social and cultural transactions between individuals, societies and states in today’s world which are significant in their respective fields reflecting preferences of states albeit non-state actors challenges and even weakens weaker states favor preferences of stronger states.

Federal Policy

Federal Policy requiring equal opportunities for boys and girls in activities, facilities, equipment, curriculum, testing and grading, requirements, and behavior and dress code How do objectives help in physical education and sport? Short-term statements of specific outcomes that build cumulatively to reach a goal. Describe the behavior that an individual will exhibit when the desired outcomes are achieved.What is the pathway of energy in the cells? That's animal com/cellular-respiration/">respiration: Oxygen in burn fuel molecules make ATP carbon dioxide out. Use of ATP as energy to perform muscular activity. Two ways to produce ATP: Anaerobic system Without oxygen High energy expenditure, short time (6-60 seconds) Aerobic system With oxygen Lower rate of energy expenditure, longer period of time (more than 3 minutes) What years marked reform in the schools?Bill Clinton (2000) Educate America Act *readiness to learn, improve graduation rates, Competency in core subjects, world leade rship in math and science, adult literacy, positive safe environment, professional development of teachers, parental involvement George W. Bush (2001) No Child Left Behind *use of standards, assessment, accountability, flexibility, and parental choice to mprove quality of education for all What did the colonial period bring to physical education? Physical education was not part of the school curriculum in colonial times. What are hypokinetic diseases?Diseases cause by insufficient physical activity often with in appropriate dietary practices I-coronary heart disease 2- hypertension 3- osteoporosis 4- non- insulin diabetes 5- chronic back pain 6- obesity 7- colon cancer 8- breast cancer 9- early death IO- adverse lipid profile List the benefits of corporate fitness programs. Reduce absenteeism. Reduce presenteeism losses Achieve higher employee productivity. Reduce workers' compensation and disability-related costs. Reduce injuries. Improve employee morale and loyalty. What are the c lasses of levers? orce (teeter totter) Second Class- weight is between the fulcrum and the force (wheel barrow)Third Class – the forc is bwtween the fulcrum and the weight (arm, shovel, boat paddle)pg198 Describe the domains/skills of physical education Cognitive- Development of intellectual skills -acquisition and application of knowledge -understanding relationship between body, physical activity and health – application of movement concepts to learning and development of motor skills – nowledge of technique, rules, strategies, and safety involved in physical activity Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Affective- values, social skills, and emotional development Values Ethics Appreciations Attitudes Character development Cooperation Self-responsibility Self-concept and self-esteem Decision-making skills Self-management and control Receiving Responding Valuing Organizing Characterizing by a value or complex Psychomotor- Motor skill s, fitness Motor skill development Presented in a sequential manner from fundamental movements to complex, pecialized sports skills Physical fitness development Development of the psychomotor domain is physical education's unique contribution to the education of children and youth!Reflex movements Basic fundamental movements Perceptual abilities Physical abilities Skilled movements Communication through nonverbal expressions Which physical education leader promoted natural gymnastics? Thomas Dennison What are the recommendations for aerobic activity according to the ACSM? Adults should get at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise per week. Exercise recommendations can be met through 30-60 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise five days per week) or 20-60 minutes of vigorous-intensity exercise (three days per week). One continuous session and multiple shorter sessions (of at least 10 minutes) are both acceptable to accumulate desired amount of daily exercise.Gradual progr ession of exercise time, frequency and intensity is recommended for best adherence and least injury risk. People unable to meet these minimums can still benefit from some activity. What are the steps in the information processing model? I-lnput 2-Decision Making 3-0utput 4- Feedback How did the ancient Romans view physical education? Exercise for health and military purposes. Rome did not believe in the â€Å"body beautiful† Preferred to be spectators rather than participants Preferred professionalism to amateurism. What is the portion of Americans living below poverty? Who led the playground initiative in NY city? Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg What are the influences on physical activity (age, education, ect†¦ )?High levels of education are associated with good health. Income is also related to health; people who are affluent tend to have better health status than those who are less affluent. Education is often a predictor of income. Many racial and ethnic minorities are e ducationally disadvantaged. Those in poverty are more likely to have difficulty reading. Gender gap is slowly closing. Females read and write better than males, although males perform better in math and science. 2000 Concensus There is an inverse and generally linear relationship for rates of all-cause mortality, total CVD, and CHD incidence and mortality and for the incidence of type 2 diabetes.Accumulation of at least 30 minutes of moderate-intensity PA on most days of the week is associated with a significant 20%-30% reduction in all-cause mortality. Additional benefits can be derived from increasing the amount and/or intensity of physial activity. What is the average body fat percentage for men and women? Linear Motion Movement in a straight line and from one point to another. Rotary motion Movement of a body around a center of rotation called an axis. Movement is affected by what factors? Gravity Natural force that pulls all objects toward the center of the earth Center of grav ity Friction Force that occurs when surfaces come in contact and results from the sliding of one surface on the other What does a biomechanist study?Studies movement patterns and how they change across the lifespan and varying disabilities. What was President Bush's contribution to education What are the modifiable causes of death? Tobacco use, poor diet, physical inactivity What are the leading causes of death? Heart disease and Cancer Kinesiology is the sub-discipline of†¦ biomechanics What are sport related components? 1. Agility 2. Balance 3. Coordination 4. Power 5. Reaction Time 6. Speed What are fitness related components? 1 . Cardiovascular fitness 2. Muscular strength 3. Muscular endurance 4. Flexibility 5. Body composition edit. Learning is focused on what elements? What are the different kind of stretching techniques?Ballistic Stretching- The dynamic method uses the momentum generated from epeated bouncing movements to stretch the muscle (not recommended) Static Stre tching – involves gently and slowly moving into the stretch position and holding it Activity levels tend to decrease with age What is the age range for the greatest increase in health club memberships? 18-34 increase 33% 33-54 increase 34% What are the latest findings from the latest Surgeon General's Report? The focus seems to be on the prevention of suicide What president established the President's Council of Youth Fitness? Dwight D. Eisenhower Anthropometric Concerned with the measurement of the human body. Length, width, diameter, circumference, and surface area Galloping Similar to sliding but performed in a forward direction. One foot leads in the forward direction. After the lead foot steps the rear foot follows quickly.The stepping leg is always the lead leg. Skipping Combination of a step and a hop alternating feet after each step-hop. Hopping Involves forcefully pushing off the ground from one foot, a brief suspension in the air, and landing on the same foot. Leapi ng Similar to the run, long step forward to cover distance or to go over an obstacle. Exaggerated running step. Biomechanics The study of the action of external and internal forces on the living body, especially on the skeletal system. Goals The result or achievement toward which effort is directed; aim; end Mission Statements An official document that sets out the goals, purpose, and work of an organization.Objectives Something that one's efforts or actions are intended to attain or accomplish; purpose; goal; target Threshold of Training Minimum level of exercise needed to achieve desired benefits. ACSM American College of Sports Medicine 1954 group of 11 physicians founded the Federation of Sports Medicine later became the ACSM Acceleration Increase of speed or velocity Principle of Conservation of Movement An object in motion stays in motion Exercise Science deals with the study of immediate and long term effects of physical activity on the human body. The how and why the human b ody responds to physical activity is also a focus. Exercise Physiology The scientific study of the acute and chronic metabolic responses of the human body to exercise, including biochemical and physiologic changes in the heart and skeletal muscles.Quantitative Analysis The testing of a substance or mixture to determine the amounts and proportions of its chemical constituents. Ergogenic Aids are any external influences that can be determined to enhance performance in high- pharmacological aids, physiological aids, nutritional aids (sports supplements), and psychological aids. Aerobic (of an organism or tissue) requiring the presence of air or free oxygen for life. Work Exertion or effort directed to produce or accomplish something; labor; toil Static Equalibrium the ability of an individual to adjust to displacements of his or her center of gravity while maintaining a constant base of support.Motor Learning Is the study of the acquisition of motor skills as a result of practice and e xperience. Leve rs A mechanical device used to produce a turning motion about a fixed point or axis. Lever consists of a fulcrum, a force arm, and a weight or resistance arm. Wellness The quality or state of being healthy in body and mind, especially as the result of deliberate effort. Scheme Theory 1975 Schmidt's theory that proposed the idea of generalized motor program. The idea that movement patterns such a kicking or throwing could be generalized to a variety of sports and settings.